The impact of Ibero-American science on global bioethical thinking.

The bioethics research conducted in Ibero-American countries has been very much restricted to its own realm. The aim of this study was to perform a bibliometric evaluation of bioethics papers by authors affiliated with Ibero-American institutions, and to determine how their work influences global bioethics literature. We performed a literature search in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS CC) and Scopus. We identified a total of 5,975 documents, of which 84.3% were articles, 11.6% reviews and 4.1% book chapters. The median number of citations per paper was higher in English-language journals. Only 10 articles published between 2010 and 2019 in peer-reviewed bioethics journals and produced exclusively by authors from Ibero-American institutions garnered more than 15 citations. Our study suggests that if researchers from Ibero-American institutions want to influence global bioethical thinking, they must make the required leap in quality to be able to publish in high-quality bioethics and mainstream journals.

Opinion of physicians and the general population on the legalization of euthanasia and assisted suicide.

In some countries, particularly Spain, one of the arguments used to justify the legalization of euthanasia is that there is a strong social demand for it. To try to ascertain the truth of this statement, we review different surveys of physicians and the general public, to determine their opinion on whether or not to legalize this practice. We found that the percentage of respondents who approve this practice varies widely from one country to another, with some countries in which approval is close to 80% and others in which it fails to reach even 40%. It has been suggested that this may be because the questions included in the various surveys differ greatly, since not all use the word ″euthanasia″ directly, replacing it with words or phrases of similar meaning. Thus, some respondents may not quite identify them with euthanasia. We conclude that, in the vast majority of countries, there does not seem to be an objective social demand to justify the legalization of euthanasia.

Opinion of physicians and the general population on the legalization of euthanasia and assisted suicide / Opinión de médicos y población general sobre la posible legalización de la eutanasia y el suicidio asistido

In some countries, particularly Spain, one of the arguments used to justify the legalization of euthana-sia is that there is a strong social demand for it. To try to ascertain the truth of this statement, we reviewdifferent surveys of physicians and the general public, to determine their opinion on whether or not tolegalize this practice. We found that the percentage of respondents who approve this practice varies wi-dely from one country to another, with some countries in which approval is close to 80% and others inwhich it fails to reach even 40%. It has been suggested that this may be because the questions included inthe various surveys differ greatly, since not all use the word “euthanasia” directly, replacing it with wordsor phrases of similar meaning. Thus, some respondents may not quite identify them with euthanasia. Weconclude that, in the vast majority of countries, there does not seem to be an objective social demand tojustify the legalization of euthanasia.(AU)

En algunos países, particularmente en España, uno de los argumentos utilizados para tratar de justi-ficar la legalización de la eutanasia y el suicidio asistido, es que existe una gran demanda social para ello.Para determinar si esto es o no cierto, hemos evaluado diferentes encuestas realizadas a médicos o públicoen general, para tratar de conocer cuál es la opinión de estos colectivos sobre el tema. Nosotros hemosdetectado que el porcentaje de personas u organismos que aprueban la legalización de la eutanasia varíaampliamente de un país a otro, pues en algunos la contestación afirmativa se acerca al 80% y en otrosdesciende hasta el 40%. En relación que estos resultados discrepantes pueden deberse a las distintas pre-guntas usadas en las encuestas, ya que no todas utilizan la palabra “eutanasia” directamente, sino que laremplazan por otras de similar significado, pero que posiblemente no expresan tan claramente lo que sepregunta. Nosotros concluimos que en la mayoría de los países no existe una clara demanda social que pidala legalización de la eutanasia y el suicidio asistido.(AU)

The Vatican Opinion on Gender Theory.

This article is a reasoned response to the article by Timothy F. Murphy, recently published in the prestigious journal Bioethics, on the supposed opposition between the views of the Catholic Church and what he calls "contemporary science" in relation to certain anthropological issues linked to the gender perspective. To point to "the Vatican" as anchored in an unscientific and anachronistic position, using the term contemporary science to which he attributes a unanimous representation of current scientific thinking on the subject is, in our view, unfounded and completely unacceptable. In his reflection, he does not adequately distinguish between intersex and transgenderism, two clearly different realities with different needs. The author defends the obsolescence of the binary sex/gender model that, in his view, "betrays human sexuality." Furthermore, he does so without providing a plausible justification or a definition of human nature that is able to support the plurality and indeterminacy of sexual conditions, without falling back on untenable dualisms or relativism devoid of scientific objectivity. In our response, we highlight how the dialogue between Faith and Reason, as developed in the recent Magisterium of the Catholic Church, is essential to explain nature, the human being and, in general, all creations. Finally, contemporary science does not provide a monolithic and unquestionable view of the nature of human beings and their sexual identity, as the author claims, with many scientists confirming evidence of a binary human sexuality genetically and phenotypically determined. SUMMARY: This paper is a reasoned response to the supposed opposition between the views of the Catholic Church and "contemporary science" in relation to certain anthropological issues linked to the gender perspective.The dialogue between Faith and Reason, as developed in the recent Magisterium of the Catholic Church, is essential to explain nature, the human being and, in general, all creation, against the opinion of those who defend the obsolescence of the binary sex/gender model that, in their view, "betrays human sexuality".

From Australopithecus to cyborgs. Are we facing the end of human evolution? / De Australopithecus a cyborgs. ¿Nos enfrentamos al final de la evolución humana? / Do Australopithecus aos ciborgues. Estamos diante do fim da evolução humana?

Abstract Social implementation of post-humanism could affect the biological evolution of living beings and especially that of humans. This paper addresses the issue from the biological and anthropological-philosophical perspectives. From the biological perspective, reference is made first to the evolution of hominids until the emergence of Homo sapiens, and secondly, to the theories of evolution with special reference to their scientific foundation and the theory of extended heredity. In the anthropological-philosophical part, the paradigm is presented according to which human consciousness, in its emancipatory zeal against biological nature, must "appropriate" the roots of its physis to transcend the human and move towards a more "perfect" entity; we also assess the theory that refers this will to the awakening of the cosmic consciousness in our conscious matter. Finally, it assesses whether this post-humanist emancipatory paradigm implies true evolution or, instead, an involution to the primitive state of nature.

Resumen La implementación social del poshumanismo podría afectar la evolución biológica de los seres vivos y, especialmente, la de los humanos. Este artículo aborda el tema desde las perspectivas biológica y antropológico-filosófica. Desde la perspectiva biológica, se hace referencia, en primer lugar, a la evolución de los homínidos hasta la aparición del Homo sapiens, y en segundo lugar a las teorías de la evolución, con especial referencia a su fundamento científico y a la teoría de la herencia extendida. En la parte antropológico-filosófica se presenta el paradigma según el cual la conciencia humana, en su afán emancipador frente a la naturaleza biológica, debe "apropiarse" de las raíces de su physis para trascender lo humano y avanzar hacia una entidad más "perfecta"; evaluamos también la teoría que refiere esta voluntad al despertar de la conciencia cósmica en nuestra materia consciente. Finalmente, evalúa si este paradigma emancipatorio poshumanista implica una verdadera evolución o, en cambio, una involución al primitivo estado de naturaleza.

Resumo A implementação social do pós-humanismo pode afetar a evolução biológica dos seres vivos e especialmente dos humanos. Esse artigo aborda o problema de perspectivas biológicas e antropológico-filosófica. Desde uma perspectiva biológica, é feito referencia primeiro à evolução de hominídeos até a emergência do Homo sapiens e, em seguida, às teorias da evolução, com especial referencia ao seu fundamento científico e à teoria da hereditariedade estendida. Na parte antropológico-filosófica, o paradigma é apresentado de acordo com o qual a consciência humana, em seu zelo emancipatório da natureza biológica, deve "apropriar" as raízes da sua natureza para transcender o humano e se mover em direção a uma entidade mais "perfeita": nós também avaliamos a teoria que refere este desejo ao despertar da consciência cósmica em nossa matéria consciente. Finalmente, ele avalia se este paradigma emancipatório pós-humanista implica evolução verdadeira ou, contrariamente, uma involução para o estado primitivo da natureza.

The Use of NFP When Pregnancy Is Contraindicated?

The Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith has declared the moral liceity of hysterectomy when certain medical criteria are met but does not exclude other options, "for example, recourse to infertile periods or total abstinence." Consequently, there may be couples who prefer to use natural family planning (NFP) methods. We shall refer to these in this article. The efficacy of NFP methods is determined by knowing the day of ovulation. To that end, three parameters are used: the presence and consistency of cervical mucus, measurement of the basal body temperature, and the determination of particular hormones in urine. Of the NFP methods used, the so-called sympto-thermal method seems to be the most effective. It has been concluded that the postovulatory or luteal phase of the female menstrual cycle is the safest time to avoid pregnancy if the couple has sexual intercourse during this period. Nevertheless, the use of NFP methods has limitations if the length of the cycles varies, there are fluctuations in the basal temperature, or when there are vaginal infections. Urinary hormone levels can also be altered by the use of antibiotics or psychotropic drugs. In general, however, it can be concluded that NFP methods, if used in the conditions mentioned herein, offer a high degree of reliability, similar to that of artificial contraceptive methods. Accordingly, if pregnancy must be avoided in the medical circumstances to which the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith refers, NFP methods can effectively replace hysterectomy, thereby circumventing the medical difficulties of this practice. SUMMARY: The Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith has declared the moral liceity of hysterectomy when certain medical criteria are met but does not exclude other options, "for example, recourse to infertile periods or total abstinence." Consequently, there may be couples who prefer to use natural family planning (NFP) methods. We shall refer to these in this article. In general, it can be concluded that NFP methods, if used in the conditions mentioned herein, offer a high degree of reliability, similar to that of artificial contraceptive methods. Accordingly, if pregnancy must be avoided in the medical circumstances to which the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith refers, NFP methods can effectively replace hysterectomy, thereby circumventing the medical difficulties of this practice.

CRISPR-CAS9. El mayor avance en técnicas de edición genética requiere una reflexión ética / CRISPR-CAS9. The greatest advancement in genetic edition techniques requires an ethical reflection

La adaptación del sistema CRISPR como herramienta de edición genética ha supuesto una revolución en numerosos campos de aplicación, pues esta técnica resulta considerablemente más rápida, fácil de realizar y eficaz que las técnicas predecesoras. Sin embargo, algunas de estas aplicaciones suscitan objetivas cuestiones éticas que deben ser abordadas. En este trabajo discutimos, en base a los datos más recientes, las distintas cuestiones relacionadas con las aplicaciones de CRISPR sobre la línea germinal, su introducción en ensayos clínicos, la edición genética de animales y plantas para consumo humano y el novedoso gene drive

The adaptation of the CRISPR system as a genetic editing tool has led to a revolution in many fields of application, as this technique is considerably faster, easier to perform and more efficient than predecessor techniques. However, some of these applications raise objective ethical issues that must be addressed. In this paper we discuss, based on the most recent data, the different issues related to CRISPR applications on the germ line, its introduction in clinical trials, the genetic edition of animals and plants for human consumption and the novel gene drive

[CRISPR-CAS9. The greatest advancement in genetic edition techniques requires an ethical reflection]. / CRISPR-CAS9. El mayor avance en técnicas de edición genética requiere una reflexión ética.

The adaptation of the CRISPR system as a genetic editing tool has led to a revolution in many fields of application, as this technique is considerably faster, easier to perform and more efficient than predecessor techniques. However, some of these applications raise objective ethical issues that must be addressed. In this paper we discuss, based on the most recent data, the different issues related to CRISPR applications on the germ line, its introduction in clinical trials, the genetic edition of animals and plants for human consumption and the novel gene drive.

Gestational Surrogacy: Current View.

Surrogate motherhood is an assisted procreation practice by which a woman gestates an embryo with which she has no biological relationship on behalf of a contracting couple or individual, having to relinquish the child to them after its birth. This practice normally entails a financial remuneration for the pregnant woman; when this is not the case, it is called altruistic surrogacy. From a medical perspective, potential problems for the surrogate and for children born through this practice should be taken into account, especially the existence of possible disabilities in the child. The bioethical aspects are of most interest because the practice of surrogacy objectifies the expectant mother, by using her body for a purpose other than her own good, treating her as a commodity, as a thing. The same is true for the child because it makes him a disposable object, something that can be instrumentalized, similarly objectifying him.

The Conception of Synthetic Entities from a Personalist Perspective.

Synthetic biology opens up the possibility of producing new entities not found in nature, whose classification as organisms or machines has been debated. In this paper we are focusing on the delimitation of the moral value of synthetic products, in order to establish the ethically right way to behave towards them. In order to do so, we use personalism as our ethical framework. First, we examine how we can distinguish between organisms and machines. Next, we discuss whether the products of synthetic biology can be considered organisms at all and assess what their moral value is and how should we behave towards them. Finally, we discuss the hypothetical case of synthetic humans.

Analysis of the truth in advertising on the efficacy provided by assisted reproduction clinics / Análisis sobre la autenticidad de la publicidad sobre la eficacia de clínicas de reproducción asistida / Análise da verdade na publicidade sobre a eficácia fornecida pelas clínicas de reprodução assistida

Abstract: This paper analyses the efficacy data from assisted reproduction clinics, obtained from both scientific society reports and from studies published in specialised journals, in order to compare them with information published by Spanish assisted reproduction clinics on their websites. It aims to verify whether this information matches the reality of the findings in the media analysed or, in contrast, differs from the aforementioned scientific evidence. Our study shows marked discrepancies between the evidence of existing statistical data, and figures published by most of the clinics on their websites, which could constitute false advertising.

Resumen: Este estudio analiza los datos de eficacia de clínicas de reproducción asistida, obtenidos tanto de informes de sociedades científicas como de estudios publicados en revistas especializadas, para compararlos con la información publicada por las clínicas de reproducción asistida de España en sus sitios web. El objetivo es verificar si esta información es conforme a los hallados en informes y revistas o, por el contrario, difiere de la evidencia científica mencionada. Nuestro estudio demuestra marcadas discrepancias entre la evidencia de datos estadísticos existentes y las cifras publicadas por la mayoría de los sitios web de las clínicas, lo cual constituye falsa publicidad.

Resumo: Este artigo analisa os dados de eficácia de clínicas de reprodução assistida, obtidas de relatórios da sociedade científica e de estudos publicados em revistas especializadas, a fim de compará-los com informações publicadas por clínicas de reprodução assistida espanholas em seus websites. O artigo visa verificar se esta informação coincide com a realidade dos resultados encontrados nos meios de comunicação analisados ou, por outro lado, difere da evidência científica acima mencionada. Nosso estudo mostra discrepâncias entre a evidência dos dados estatísticos existentes e indicadores publicados pela maioria das clínicas em seus sites, que podem constituir falsa publicidade.

Moral assessment of frozen human embryo adoption in the light of the Magisterium of the Catholic Church / Evaluación moral de la adopción de embriones humanos congelados a la luz del Magisterio de la Iglesia Católica / Avaliação moral de adoção de embriões humanos congelados, em consideração ao Magistério da Igreja Católica

As the number of frozen human embryos continues to rise daily, with numbers not expected to fall, an answer must be found to this dilemma. Four possible solutions have been suggested: a) thaw the embryos and allow them to perish; b) thaw them and donate them for biomedical research; c) thaw them and donate them in adoption; and d) leave them frozen indefinitely. This paper will evaluate the morality of these four possible solutions, particularly frozen human embryo adoption in the light of the Magisterium of the Catholic Church, which in its Instruction Dignitas Personae, appears to have opted to consider this practice as illicit. We also review the various stances of expert moralists in favour of or against frozen human embryo adoption, and we reflect on the extent to which the doctrine contained in Dignitas Personae can bind the moral conscience of the Catholic faithful. Finally, we make a personal evaluation of frozen human embryo adoption, in an attempt to find moral reasons that substantiate the negative opinion manifested by the Catholic Magisterium on this matter. In conclusion, we suggest that the moral assessment of frozen human embryo adoption as set forth in Dignitas Personae might not be considered as settled. Therefore, we are of the opinion that there is no impediment to further research on the moral foundation of this adoptive practice; however, insofar as this occurs, we believe that the best attitude of the Catholic faithful is to follow the moral criteria presented in Dignitas Personae with respect to the adoption of frozen human embryos.

Cada día aumenta el número de embriones humanos congelados y no se prevé que su número disminuya, por lo que parece necesario buscar una solución a este problema. Se han planteado cuatro posibles: a) descongelarlos y dejarlos morir; b) descongelarlos y donarlos para investigaciones biomédicas; c) descongelarlos y donarlos en adopción; y d) dejarlos congelados indefinidamente. En este trabajo se evalúa la moralidad de estas cuatro posibles soluciones, y espacialmente de la adopción de los embriones humanos congelados a la luz del Magisterio de la Iglesia Católica, que en su Instrucción Dignitas Personae, se decanta por la ilicitud de dicha práctica. También se revisan distintas posturas de moralistas expertos favorables o no a la adopción de embriones humanos congelados. Igualmente se reflexiona sobre en qué medida la doctrina contenida en Dignitas Personae puede obligar a la conciencia moral de los fieles católicos. Finalmente se realiza una evaluación personal de la adopción de embriones humanos congelados tratando de buscar razones morales que fundamenten el porqué del juicio negativo manifestado por el Magisterio Católico. Los autores sostienen que la ilicitud ética de la adopción de embriones humanos congelados puede radicar en la ilicitud moral de la subrogación, que hace ilícito todo el proceso procreativo, constituido por: acto conyugal, fecundación del óvulo e implantación del embrión producido en el útero en su madre biológica. Finalmente se plantea que lo expuesto en Dignitas Personae posiblemente no da por zanjada la valoración moral de la adopción de embriones humanos congelados, por lo que somos de la opinión de que no existe impedimento alguno para poder seguir investigando sobre la fundamentación moral de esta práctica adoptiva; pero que, en tanto en cuanto ello se produzca, nos parece que la mejor actitud de los fieles católicos es seguir los criterios morales de Dignitas Personae, expone con respecto a la adopción de embriones humanos congelados.

Cada dia aumenta o número de embriões humanos congelados e não se espera o número diminua, portanto parece necessário encontrar uma solução para este problema. Foram levantadas quatro possíveis: a) descongelá-los e deixá-los morrer; (b) descongelá-los e doá-los para pesquisa biomédica; (c) descongelada-los e doá-los para adoção; e (d) deixá-los congelados indefinidamente. Nesse trabalho se avalia a moralidade dessas quatro possíveis soluções e especialmente a adoção de embriões humanos congelados à luz do Magistério da Igreja Católica, que em sua instrução Dignitas Personae, opta pela ilegalidade da prática. Também se revisam posturas diferentes dos moralistas especialistas favoráveis ou não à adoção de embriões humanos congelados. Igualmente, reflete-se sobre como a doutrina contida na Dignitas Personae pode obrigar a consciência moral dos fiéis católicos.Finalmente se realiza uma avaliação pessoal da adoção de embriões humanos congelados pretendendo buscar razões morais que fundamentem o porquê do juízo negativo manifestado pelo magistério católico. Os autores argumentam que a ilegalidade ética da adoção de embriões humanos congelados pode resultar na ilicitude moral de sub-rogação, tornando ilícito todo o processoprocriador, constiuído por: ato conjugal, fertilização do óvulo e implantação do embrião produzido no útero de sua mãe biológica. Finalmente, apresenta-se que o exposto no Dignitas Personae, possivelmente, não dá por resolvida a valoração moral da adopção de embriões humanos congelados, portanto somos da opinião de que não há nenhum impedimento para seguir pesquisando sobre o fundamentação moral desta prática adotiva; Porém, porquanto ele se produza, parece-nos que a melhor atitude dos fiéis católicos será seguir os critérios morais de Dignitas Personae, expostos no que se refere a adoção de embriões humanos congelados.

Mitochondrial Modification Techniques and Ethical Issues.

Current strategies for preventing the transmission of mitochondrial disease to offspring include techniques known as mitochondrial replacement and mitochondrial gene editing. This technology has already been applied in humans on several occasions, and the first baby with donor mitochondria has already been born. However, these techniques raise several ethical concerns, among which is the fact that they entail genetic modification of the germline, as well as presenting safety problems in relation to a possible mismatch between the nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, maternal mitochondrial DNA carryover, and the "reversion" phenomenon. In this essay, we discuss these questions, highlighting the advantages of some techniques over others from an ethical point of view, and we conclude that none of these are ready to be safely applied in humans.

Fraude en las publicaciones científicas: una polémica que no cesa / Fraud in scientific publications: a controversy that never ceases

Es un problema ampliamente debatido la existencia de fraudes en la investigación científica, muchas veces debidos a la presión que los investigadores tienen por publicar, pues en ello les va muchas veces la continuidad de sus investigaciones. En este informe se analiza el problema, especialmente a la luz de varias experiencias en las que se han enviado a publicar artículos con contenido intencional fraudulento que han sido admitidos a publicar por revistas especializadas de prestigio

Does levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive have a post-fertilization effect? A review of its mechanism of action.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have identified that levonorgestrel administered orally in emergency contraception (LNG-EC) is only efficacious when taken before ovulation. However, the drug does not consistently prevent follicular rupture or impair sperm function. OBJECTIVE: The present systematic review is performed to analyze and more precisely define the extent to which pre-fertilization mechanisms of action may explain the drug's efficacy in pregnancy avoidance. We also examine the available evidence to determine if pre-ovulatory drug administration may be associated with post-fertilization effects. CONCLUSION: The mechanism of action of LNG-EC is reviewed. The drug has no ability to alter sperm function at doses used in vivo and has limited ability to suppress ovulation. Our analysis estimates that the drug's ovulatory inhibition potential could prevent less than 15 percent of potential conceptions, thus making a pre-fertilization mechanism of action significantly less likely than previously thought. Luteal effects (such as decreased progesterone, altered glycodelin levels, and shortened luteal phase) present in the literature may suggest a pre-ovulatory induced post-fertilization drug effect. LAY SUMMARY: Plan B is the most widely used emergency contraceptive available. It is important for patients and physicians to clearly understand the drug's mechanism of action (MOA). The drug was originally thought to work by preventing fertilization. Recent research has cast doubt on this. Our review of the research suggests that it could act in a pre-fertilization capacity, and we estimate that it could prevent ovulation in only 15 percent or less of cases. The drug has no ability to alter sperm function and limited ability to suppress ovulation. Further, data suggest that when administered pre-ovulation, it may have a post-fertilization MOA.

Ethical aspects of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA transfer.

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) (cloning), as a reproductive or therapeutic method, and mitochondrial DNA transfer, as a method to prevent the transmission of mitochondrial diseases, are analyzed in this paper from a bioethics perspective. The licit purpose of being able to treat certain diseases, as in the case of SCNT, cannot justify, in any case, resorting to illicit means such as the manipulation, selection, and elimination of human embryos in the blastocyst phase, by using cell lines obtained from them. Crossing this line paves the way (as utilitarian ethics advocates) to assuming any cost in scientific experimentation so long as satisfactory results are obtained. With mitochondrial replacement, either human embryos are directly manipulated (pronuclear transfer) or germline cells are manipulated (maternal spindle transfer); changes in these could be transmitted to the offspring. LAY SUMMARY: This article analyzes somatic cell nuclear transfer (cloning) and mitochondrial DNA transfer techniques, in both reproductive and therapeutic applications, and preventive methods in the transmission of mitochondrial diseases, from a bioethical perspective. The manipulation, selection, and elimination of human embryos delimits the ethical acceptability of these promising techniques.

Valoración de la adopción de embriones humanos congelados desde el punto de vista de la filosofía moral, la ética laica y dos religiones monoteístas / Valuating frozen human embryo adoption from a moral philosophical point of view, lay ethics and two monotheist religions / Valoração da adoção de embriões humanos congelados do ponto de vista da filosofia moral, a ética laica e duas religiões monoteístas

La búsqueda de la eficacia en la fecundación in vitro hace que se produzcan más embriones que los que se implantarán, lo que produce un excedente de embriones, que es congelado. Esto hace que ineludiblemente el número de embriones humanos congelados aumente. Entre las soluciones para dichos embriones humanos congelados está la donación/adopción de los mismos. Ineludiblemente esta práctica conlleva objetivos problemas éticos. En este trabajo se evalúa la eticidad de la donación/adopción de embriones humanos congelados desde la perspectiva de la filosofía moral, lo que podríamos llamar una "ética laica" y dos de las religiones monoteístas: la musulmana y la judía.

The search for IVF efficacy leads to a higher embryo production than it is necessary for implantation; this results in an excess of embryos which are kept frozen. This amount of frozen embryos inevitably increases. The donation/adoption are among the possible solutions for these frozen embryos. However, this practice has objective ethical problems. This article considers the ethical aspects of the donation / adoption of frozen human embryos from the point of view of moral philosophy, from what we could call "secular ethics" and from two monotheistic religions: Muslim and Jewish.

A busca da eficácia na fecundação in vitro faz com que se produzam mais embriões dos que se implantarão, o que produz um excedente de embriões, que é congelado. Isto faz com que inquestionavelmente o número de embriões humanos congelados aumente. Entre as soluções para os ditos embriões humanos congelados está na doação/adoção dos mesmos. Ineludivelmente esta prática implica objetivos problemas éticos. Neste trabalho se avalia a eticidade da doação/adoção de embriões humanos congelados a partir da perspectiva da filosofia moral, o que poderíamos chamar uma "ética laica" e duas religiões monoteistas: a mulçumana e a judia.

Use of Embryonic Stem Cells to Treat Severe Eye Diseases.

BACKGROUND: The use of stem cells in regenerative medicine has major therapeutic potential. Recent clinical trials using cells derived from human stem cells are showing encouraging results, although these should be assessed with the necessary caution. DISCUSSION: Some media have reported the results of these trials without due care, perhaps creating expectations that do not match the reality of the facts. This paper describes some of the recent advances in the use of human stem cells, particularly those made in the area of ophthalmology, and more specifically, in Stargardt's disease and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). We also present promising studies with induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS), aimed at obtaining retinal pigmented epithelium and light-sensitive retinal rods in the aforementioned ocular diseases, with encouraging preclinical and clinical results. CONCLUSIONS: From a medical point of view, we must not forget that the transplanted retinal epithelium cells may cause tumours, since they have been obtained from Embryonic Stem cells, and may trigger immune rejection problems since they are heterologous. These considerations attest to the ethical uncertainty of the results of these clinical trials, but above all, it must be stressed that whenever Embryonic Stem cells are used, a human embryo must be destroyed to obtain them, which of course has objective ethical difficulties.

A Personalist Ontological Approach to Synthetic Biology.

Although synthetic biology is a promising discipline, it also raises serious ethical questions that must be addressed in order to prevent unwanted consequences and to ensure that its progress leads toward the good of all. Questions arise about the role of this discipline in a possible redefinition of the concept of life and its creation. With regard to the products of synthetic biology, the moral status that they should be given as well as the ethically correct way to behave towards them are not clear. Moreover, risks that could result from a misuse of this technology or from an accidental release of synthetic organisms into the environment cannot be ignored; concerns about biosecurity and biosafety appear. Here we discuss these and other questions from a personalist ontological framework, which defends human life as an essential value and proposes a set of principles to ensure the safeguarding of this and other values that are based on it.